{"product_id":"earliest-times-to-800-d-set-of-9-books-nag292","title":"Earliest Times to 800 A.D. (Set of 9 Books)","description":"\u003ch2 class=\"title is-size-3-desktop is-size-5-touch has-text-centered product-details-description-title\"\u003eBook Specification\u003c\/h2\u003e\u003ctable\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003eItem Code:\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd\u003eNAG292\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003ePublisher:\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd\u003e\u003ca href=\"\/ar\/book-publisher\/indira%20gandhi%20national%20open%20university\" class=\"underlined\" title=\"Indira Gandhi National Open University\"\u003eIndira Gandhi National Open University\u003c\/a\u003e\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003eLanguage:\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd\u003eEnglish\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003eEdition:\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd\u003e2010\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003ePages:\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd\u003e488 (96 B\/W Illustrations)\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003eCover:\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd\u003ePaperback\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003eOther Details\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd rel=\"product-dimensions\"\u003e11 inch X 8 inch\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd class=\"product-details-specifications-label has-text-grey-dark\"\u003eWeight\u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd rel=\"product-weight\"\u003e1.30 kg\u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003c\/table\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ch2 class=\"title is-size-3-desktop is-size-5-touch has-text-centered product-details-description-title\"\u003eBook Description\u003c\/h2\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"product-details-description\" style=\"max-height: 63rem; overflow-y: auto;\"\u003e \u003cmeta http-equiv=\"Content-Type\" content=\"text\/html; charset=windows-1252\"\u003e \u003cmeta name=\"ProgId\" content=\"Word.Document\"\u003e \u003cmeta name=\"Generator\" content=\"Microsoft Word 12\"\u003e \u003cmeta name=\"Originator\" content=\"Microsoft Word 12\"\u003e \u003clink rel=\"File-List\" href=\"nag292_files\/filelist.xml\"\u003e \u003c!--[if gte mso 9]\u003e\u003cxml\u003e \u003cdocumentproperties\u003e \u003cauthor\u003eReena\u003c\/author\u003e \u003ctemplate\u003eNormal\u003c\/template\u003e \u003clastauthor\u003eReena\u003c\/lastauthor\u003e \u003crevision\u003e10\u003c\/revision\u003e \u003ctotaltime\u003e22\u003c\/totaltime\u003e \u003ccreated\u003e2014-04-16T09:28:00Z\u003c\/created\u003e 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m:val=\"subSup\"\u003e\u003c\/intlim\u003e \u003cnarylim m:val=\"undOvr\"\u003e\u003c\/narylim\u003e \u003c\/mathpr\u003e\u003c\/worddocument\u003e \u003c\/xml\u003e\u003c![endif]--\u003e\u003c!--[if gte mso 9]\u003e\u003cxml\u003e \u003clatentstyles deflockedstate=\"false\" defunhidewhenused=\"true\" defsemihidden=\"true\" defqformat=\"false\" defpriority=\"99\" latentstylecount=\"267\"\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"0\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Normal\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 7\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 8\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"9\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"heading 9\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 7\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 8\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" name=\"toc 9\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"35\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"caption\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"10\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Title\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"1\" name=\"Default Paragraph Font\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"11\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Subtitle\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"22\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Strong\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"20\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"59\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Table Grid\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Placeholder Text\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"1\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"No Spacing\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"60\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Shading\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"61\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light List\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"62\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Grid\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"63\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"64\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"65\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"66\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"67\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"68\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"69\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"70\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Dark List\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"71\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Shading\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"72\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful List\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"73\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Grid\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"60\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Shading Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"61\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light List Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"62\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Grid Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"63\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 1 Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"64\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 2 Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"65\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 1 Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Revision\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"34\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"List Paragraph\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"29\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Quote\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"30\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Intense Quote\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"66\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 2 Accent 1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"67\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 1 Accent 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1\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"60\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Shading Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"61\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light List Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"62\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Grid Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"63\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 1 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"64\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 2 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"65\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 1 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"66\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 2 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"67\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 1 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"68\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 2 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"69\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 3 Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"70\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Dark List Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"71\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Shading Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"72\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful List Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"73\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Grid Accent 2\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"60\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Shading Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"61\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light List Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"62\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Grid Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"63\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 1 Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"64\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 2 Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"65\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 1 Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"66\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 2 Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"67\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 1 Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"68\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 2 Accent 3\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"69\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 3 Accent 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4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"68\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 2 Accent 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"69\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 3 Accent 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"70\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Dark List Accent 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"71\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Shading Accent 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"72\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful List Accent 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"73\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Grid Accent 4\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"60\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Shading Accent 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"61\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light List Accent 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"62\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Light Grid Accent 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"63\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 1 Accent 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"64\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 2 Accent 5\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"65\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 1 Accent 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6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"64\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Shading 2 Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"65\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 1 Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"66\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium List 2 Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"67\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 1 Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"68\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 2 Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"69\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Medium Grid 3 Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"70\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Dark List Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"71\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Shading Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"72\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful List Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"73\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" name=\"Colorful Grid Accent 6\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"19\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Subtle Emphasis\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"21\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Intense Emphasis\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"31\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Subtle Reference\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"32\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Intense Reference\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"33\" semihidden=\"false\" unhidewhenused=\"false\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"Book Title\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"37\" name=\"Bibliography\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003clsdexception locked=\"false\" priority=\"39\" qformat=\"true\" name=\"TOC Heading\"\u003e\u003c\/lsdexception\u003e \u003c\/latentstyles\u003e \u003c\/xml\u003e\u003c![endif]--\u003e \u003cstyle\u003e \u003c!-- \/* Font Definitions *\/ @font-face {font-family:\"Cambria Math\"; panose-1:2 4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:1; 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mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;} @page Section1 {size:21.0cm 842.0pt; margin:18.0pt 171.75pt 18.0pt 42.45pt; mso-header-margin:35.4pt; mso-footer-margin:35.4pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --\u003e \u003c\/style\u003e \u003c!--[if gte mso 10]\u003e \u003cstyle\u003e \/* Style Definitions *\/ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:\"Table Normal\"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:\"\"; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:\"Times New Roman\",\"serif\";} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:\"Table Grid\"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-priority:59; mso-style-unhide:no; border:solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-themecolor:text1; mso-border-alt:solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor:text1; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid black; mso-border-insideh-themecolor:text1; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev-themecolor:text1; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:\"Times New Roman\",\"serif\";} \u003c\/style\u003e \u003c![endif]--\u003e\u003c!--[if gte mso 9]\u003e\u003cxml\u003e \u003cshapedefaults v:ext=\"edit\" spidmax=\"11266\"\u003e\u003c\/shapedefaults\u003e \u003c\/xml\u003e\u003c![endif]--\u003e\u003c!--[if gte mso 9]\u003e\u003cxml\u003e \u003cshapelayout v:ext=\"edit\"\u003e \u003cidmap v:ext=\"edit\" data=\"1\"\u003e\u003c\/idmap\u003e \u003c\/shapelayout\u003e\u003c\/xml\u003e\u003c![endif]--\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Section1\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eAbout the Book\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 1: Environment and Early Patterns of Adaptation\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 2: \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e Civilization\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 3: Evolution of Early Indian Society\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 4: \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eIndia :\u003c\/span\u003e 6\u003csup\u003eth\u003c\/sup\u003e to 4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c\/sup\u003e Century B.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 5: Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 6: \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eIndia :\u003c\/span\u003e Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 7: State and Society in South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 8: Indian \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ePolity :\u003c\/span\u003e B.C. 300 to 800 A.D.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBook 9: Transition to Early Medieval India\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 1: Environment and Early Patterns of Adaptation\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThis block is divided into two parts. The first two Units introduce to you the major geographical regions of India and sub-regions within them. They also tell you how the regions evolved in history owing to interplay of different factors. You know that the Indian sub- continent is vast in size and its different parts have-different characteristics in terms of elevation \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(height) soil, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003erainfall, drainage system or the way major rivers and their tributaries flow. An understanding of these different sets of characteristics of different areas or regions is necessary because, as you will read later, human activities in the Indian sub-continent were not uniform in nature, nor were similar activities taking place simultaneously everywhere. This is particularly true of the period with which this course is concerned.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eAt the early stages of social evolution the shape of history was largely dependent on how human communities were interacting with their environment, and the nature of this interaction laid the foundation of how different regions were formed. Unit 2 tells you how some region took shape comparatively early and also why other regions took time to assume recognizable shapes, although no region ever remained in complete isolation from one another. The unit also tells you that despite regional differences there were common traits in social organization, in religion, in the ideal of kingship, etc. which came to characterize all regions of the sub- continent. Thus, there emerged the idea of a common cultural identity which bound different regions together.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn units 3 and 4 you shall read about the earliest stages of cultural \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eevolution\u003c\/span\u003e in the Indian sub- continent. Unit 3 discusses how human communities lived essentially as gatherers of food from their environment by adapting themselves to it and by adapting appropriate techniques for preparing tools for this purpose. Even though the pace of change in this stage of culture was slow the stages of the evolution of tools which the human beings made to acquire food and process it, nevertheless show both changes in the climate and in the natural environment in which they lived and their capacity to adapt to this change. A major change, which a renowned archaeologist once called Revolution, came when human communities began to produce their own food by taking to farming and domesticating animals. These changes also took a long span of time to take shape because both involved human intervention in nature: wild plants had to be domesticated for yielding cereals which could be processed as food and selection of wild animals had to be made which could be domesticated and put to varieties of use. Another change which this stage of culture brought about was that human communities' tended to take to settled life, resulting in the formation of earliest villages in history.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eAlthough the beginnings of farming and animal domestication have been generally associated with the Neolithic or New Stone Age, which is named after the ground stone tools of this phase, this may not be true for all areas. The earlier view that this change took place originally in one region (West Asia\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e)and\u003c\/span\u003e then spread to other areas is also being modified now. But whatever be the changes in scholarly views the important point remains that as in other areas, in the Indian sub-continent too, change-over to food production from hunting and gathering, in different regions and in different points of time marked a new stage in the evolution of Indian society.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eWe would also like to mention here that the primary sources for knowing about the culture of the period under discussion in this Block are archaeological sources. These have been unearthed by Archaeologists through excavations carried out at various places.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 2: \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e Civilization\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe excavations carried out in Harappa and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMohenjodaro\u003c\/span\u003e, in the twenties changed our perception of the Indian history. The books written prior to these \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eexcavations .\u003c\/span\u003e would begin with the Vedic society dating back to about the 12th Century B.C. Cities and Civilizations were believed to have emerged only around the sixth century B.C. The discovery of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e Civilization altogether changed this perception. This was because now cities were discovered which dated back to about 500 B.C. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eEver\u003c\/span\u003e since its discovery 'the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e Civilization has presented one of the most exciting areas of research in the Indian history. Discoveries and excavations of new settlements and fresh approaches to research have enriched our information about the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappans\u003c\/span\u003e. New sites are still being discovered and our present day views about the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappans\u003c\/span\u003e might be radically changed by some future discovery.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn Unit 5 we have discussed the processes by which scholars established the chronology of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e Civilization. The excavations in the past twenty years have also. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eshown\u003c\/span\u003e that the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e cities did not come up suddenly as was believed earlier. They had a background in the emergent agricultural communities of the previous period. These agriculturists had already evolved small towns in the fourth\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003emillennium\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e B.C.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUnit 6 deals with the town planning and social structure of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappans\u003c\/span\u003e. Since, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003escripthas\u003c\/span\u003e not been deciphered the arguments are based on inferences made out of the material finds.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn Unit 7 we have discussed the trade network of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappans\u003c\/span\u003e. The \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e cities seem to have exploited resources from the surrounding regions. They also participated in an international trade network linking them with the Mesopotamians.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eReligion and metaphysical speculation have been important characteristics of ancient civilizations. Religion, dealing with the ideals and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003emetapliysical\u003c\/span\u003e speculations, is difficult to understand without the written word. That is why Unit 8 dealing with the religion of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappans\u003c\/span\u003e is somewhat speculative. It discusses the finds of various objects which are believed to have some religious significance. However, the conclusions are largely tentative.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe end of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e cities has been \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-bidi-font-style:italic\"\u003ead\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-bidi-font-style: italic\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eintriguing problem for the scholars. In Unit 9 we discuss various approaches to understanding the end of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e civilization. However, this Unit also goes on to evaluate' what survives from the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e Civilization in the subsequent periods of history.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 3: Evolution of Early Indian Society\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\" In\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e Blocks 1 and 2 you first became familiar with India as a geographically defined country and also learnt how the earliest human groups in this country adapted themselves to the varieties of its environment. You have seen that the earliest stage of cultural evolution is indicated by transition from hunting food gathering to the stage when humans discovered how to produce food. This change is revealed by archaeological evidence. Further changes - also revealed by archaeology - are indicated by the settlements (both urban and non-urban) and the various remains found in them of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e culture which, as you have learnt, was the most widespread culture in the contemporary ancient world. It should however be remembered that processes of cultural change are neither universal nor uniform. The areas covered by the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e culture had within \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ethemselves\u003c\/span\u003e significant variations. There were other parts of the subcontinent, either in contact with the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e culture or away from its sphere of influence, where there were no big or small cities \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eIn\u003c\/span\u003e these areas the cultural patterns were different from the patterns represented by the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e culture. In Block 3 you shall be reading mainly about the cultural profiles of these regions, although cultural changes in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e region also will be briefly touched upon in this block (you will find it useful to read this along with Block 2).\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThis Block will show that one should be cautious in viewing change as a constant movement towards development; Archaeology and History offers examples of backward movements. You\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:6.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ehave seen how the highly urbanized \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e culture suffered gradual decline, it this block also you will read how the stable \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003echalcolithic\u003c\/span\u003e farming communities of western India suffered decline and had to change their way of life because of environmental deterioration.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eDespite such examples, the cultural profiles of different regions of India between the beginning of the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. are important to learn about for man) ( reasons. First this was the period when the nuclear of what emerged as agriculture-based village cultures were being formed in all the major regions of the subcontinent, You know that villages, with their rural population and centred round agricultural production, have been the backbone of Indian civilization through centuries. Except in some areas, the small settlements based on small scale farming of this period came \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eto \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ebe transformed into regular rural settlements. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eof\u003c\/span\u003e later periods. Initially, the cultures of the small farming settlements were \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003echalcolithic\u003c\/span\u003e, but from the beginning' of the first millennium B.C. iron came to be known to different cultures, for example, the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Upper \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e Valley as also the culture of the megalith-builders of peninsular India. The impact of this metal on different cultures is yet to be properly assessed but the point Can be forcefully made that all the crucial ingredients of village \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003elife, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003esuch as' the techniques of cultivation (even of irrigation), production of varieties of major crops cultivated even today and combining farming with rearing domesticated animals were present in some measure or the other in the regional cultures of the subcontinent between the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. This widespr.ead cultural pattern, of course, co-existed with other cultural patterns such as \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003epastoralism\u003c\/span\u003e and we must also remember that despite the emergence of farming communities, hunting and gathering continued as a way of life.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eSecondly, you will learn from this Block (and in greater detail from. Block 4) that among the various reasons discussed, the pace of historical change in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e Valley became suddenly fast from the first millennium B.C. onward. By the middle of the first millennium B.C. concrete examples of these changes \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eate \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003enoticeable in the presence of large territories or \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003emahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e, in the-monarchies and republics, in the big cities and in many other forms. Why these changes first originated in the upper middle \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e is a complex question to answer. It was for long believed that the Aryans who, came from outside India and whose activities may be learnt by studying the Vedic texts composed by them had brought the civilizing influences With them, But sustained research by modem historians shows:\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ea\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e) Even if there were movements of 'Aryans' into the subcontinent, there was no large scale migration; nor was there displacement of local population as a result of conquest.\"\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eb) \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eRigveda\u003c\/span\u003e, which is the earliest evidence available for the 'Aryans' or the tribes (\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanas\u003c\/span\u003e) of the Vedic texts, reflects a society which is essentially pastoral and not one which had a substantial agrarian base.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ec) The area with which the tribes of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eRigveda\u003c\/span\u003e were associated did not include the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e Valley. It was only at\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 4: \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eIndia :\u003c\/span\u003e 6\u003csup\u003eth\u003c\/sup\u003e to 4\u003csup\u003eth\u003c\/sup\u003e Century B.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn this Block we focus on the period extending approximately from the 6th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. This period is justifiably regarded as a very significant period of Indian history. We can understand the significance of the period properly if we understand how the changes taking place in the earlier periods matured in this phase and also how this phase further influenced what happened after the fourth century B.C. In Block 3 you have read how simple cultures based on farming and animal domestication had emerged in different regions of India approximately from 2000 \u003cspan style=\"mso-bidi-font-style:italic\"\u003eB.C. \u003c\/span\u003eThey first went through the phase when copper was used and then at a \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003elatter\u003c\/span\u003e stage, around 1000 B.C., iron came to be used along with copper and other materials. We must remember that all these cultures did not appear together in different parts of India. For example, whereas a prosperous Cha1colithic village like \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eDhar\u003c\/span\u003e in south Rajasthan existed in 1800 \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eRC.,\u003c\/span\u003e in Bengal Cha1colithic villages came up centuries later. Secondly, even if the use of iron, the most convenient metal for making implements, came to be known in different areas around 1000 B.C. its function in society varied from period to period and from region to region. In the \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eValley, it seems that initially the most important use of iron was for making weapons. Only later on, its use spread to other areas of social life.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe shift to a sedentary society based on agricultural production as main occupation is indicated also by earliest available texts collectively known as the Vedic literature. We have seen (Block 3, unit 13) that society in the later Vedic phase was radically different from the society of the early Vedic phase.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIt was in the context of this agrarian situation that a new type of society emerged in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e Valley and it was in the period between the 6th century B.C. and the 4th century B.C. that the beginnings of this new type of society can be dated. This is why historians place the beginnings of the early historic period of Indian history in this phase. Let us highlight the main features of this new, early historical, society (you shall be reading in detail on them in separate units of this block):\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(1) In literature, which refers to this period, we hear of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e. Some of these \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e are mentioned in later Vedic sources and lists of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e appear in later, particularly in Buddhist and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJaina\u003c\/span\u003e texts. This signifies that for the first time in Indian history regions with different types of human settlements came to acquire specific geographical names. This is how that a region was demarcated from other regions. This was perhaps necessary because \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e were ruled by kings or a group of rulers and their areas of control and the communities over which they ruled were different.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe incorporation of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e by powerful rulers of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e led to political conflicts between rulers and, in a later period, to the establishment of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e (you will see this in Block 5). This also meant that gradually the power of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eganasamghas\u003c\/span\u003e (for example, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eLicchavis\u003c\/span\u003e of north Bihar) declined and rule of one King or the monarch became common.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 8.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(2) \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe Kings or groups of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKshatriyas\u003c\/span\u003e, the chiefs of which called themselves kings (rajas), ruled over \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e or \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e which had various \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003etype\u003c\/span\u003e of settlements such as villages, market towns, towns and cities in them. The appearance of urban centres, after a long gap of time, meant the emergence of different social groups pursuing different occupations because the existence of cities implies the existence of different sections of population who are not primarily engaged in production of food but in other activities. This also meant that people pursuing different occupations and living in one place led to the distinction between urban and rural areas.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(3) The rulers and some other social groups (for example, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e) were not engaged in production of food; so they had to receive a share of the produce. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eThus emerged the system of taxation or appropriation of a part of the produce of others.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(4) The nature of exchange of goods also changed in this period and it became complex. So the mediation of goods between individuals and between different regions led to the emergence of professional middlemen and merchants. The rich merchants \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003esetthis\u003c\/span\u003e) \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ewere \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eregarded as important in society as big landholders. This period also saw the appearance, for the first time in India, of \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003emeta\u003c\/span\u003e coins which were used extensively for exchange. It also saw the appearance of a regular trade network connecting different cities and towns.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(5) The fact is that the majority of people in this society lived in villages and \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eWere\u003c\/span\u003e engaged in producing food for themselves and for others. This required a social order in which: relations between different social groups were defined. The \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eChaturvarna\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eschemeor\u003c\/span\u003e the \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003escheme \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003edividing society into four \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003evarnas\u003c\/span\u003e which appeared in the later Vedic phase was the theoretical frame in which society w-as organized. Of course, the position of all social groups, for example that of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003edasas\u003c\/span\u003e or the slaves, was not defined in the scheme. But generally, by laying down the privileges, obligations and duties of all \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003evarnas\u003c\/span\u003e (in relation to one another) and by making \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003evarna\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e a matter of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eheridity\u003c\/span\u003e, it made possible for different social groups, with different customs, norms and hereditary pursuits, to accept the notion of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003evarna\u003c\/span\u003e division. Even radical thinkers like the Buddha who opposed the primacy of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanical\u003c\/span\u003e rituals did not depart from the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003evarna\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e based division of society.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e(6) A new type of society also meant that people living in it had new questions about life, sought meanings in life and had new aspirations. For example, a group of \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003emerchants living\u003c\/span\u003e in a city with artisans and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e or even a slave living in a village with his master and other independent cultivators, would not have been able to get their questions answered by a tribal assembly where members belonged to the same society. So the new complex society which had been emerging from the later Vedic phase in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e Valley raised many questions about the position of various social groups in society and about life in general. This is reflected in the Upanishads, in the teachings of the Buddha and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahavira\u003c\/span\u003e, and in various other types of ideas of the period which sought answers to life's problems. These Ideas which were primarily put forward by individuals who did not belong to the group of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e and who opposed elaborate Vedic rituals and the primacy of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e in society drew support from different groups of the new society, and Buddhism and \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eJainism in \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eparticular spread rapidly in the centuries which followed.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eAcknowledgment: \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eWe are thankful to \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eEklavya\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHoshangabad\u003c\/span\u003e (MP.) for permitting us to use some of their illustrations.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 5: Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock-V \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eyou have read of the history of India of the period between the 6th arid the 4th century B. C. and have become familiar with the important changes which were taking place in this period. You have seen that one of the important developments of this period was the rise of some big \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e. These \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e were mostly located in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e valley, although some were located in other regions as well. Ruled by Kings or rulers of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003egana-samghas\u003c\/span\u003e, these \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e came to produce varieties of resources through agriculture, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003epastoralism\u003c\/span\u003e, trade and production of various crafts, and in addition to agricultural settlements, these \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e came to have commercial centres and also big cities in them. In the period between the 6th century B.C. and the 4th century B.C. we find the important \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e fighting one another for political supremacy. In this Block we shall discuss how Magadha, one of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e, gradually built an empire. Magadha grew into an empire by conquering and including in \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eit\u003c\/span\u003e other territories. When its territory was largest in the period of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMaurya\u003c\/span\u003e King Asoka, it extended from Afghanistan in the northwest to \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eMaharashtra ,\u003c\/span\u003e Karnataka and Andhra in the Deccan in the south and from Gujarat in the west to north and southwest Bengal in the east (\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003esee \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003emap)\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e, in its heyday therefore, included three major geographical regions:\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e1) \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ethe\u003c\/span\u003e northwest\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e2)\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ethe\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e valley and adjacent areas to the north of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eVindhyas\u003c\/span\u003e and\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e3)\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ethe\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e Deccan.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn the region of the northwest extending from Afghanistan to Punjab, there existed a large number of autonomous territories very much like \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003egana-samghas\u003c\/span\u003e. Some of them like the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMalloi\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eOxydrakoi\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSiboi\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGandaris\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTaxila\u003c\/span\u003e, country of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePorus\u003c\/span\u003e are mentioned not only by the chroniclers of Alexander's campaigns; their existence is indicated by some \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eold\u003c\/span\u003e Persian or Iranian inscriptions and the famous grammarian Panini of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTaxila\u003c\/span\u003e also refer to them. In fact, from the sixth century B.C. the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eAchaemenid\u003c\/span\u003e empire of Persia under rulers like Cyrus Darius \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003er, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eXerxes, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eArtaxerxes\u003c\/span\u003e and Darius Ill, expanded into this region, and the 'contact proved to be culturally significant, because many elements of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eAchaemenid\u003c\/span\u003e Imperial Culture came to be used by the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e empire which originated in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e valley, Towards the close of the 4th century B.C.) \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ehe\u003c\/span\u003e mighty Persian empire was crushed by the expanding army of Alexander of Macedonia of north Greece. Alexander- advanced to the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePanjab\u003c\/span\u003e plains and fought valiant battles with territories of this region headed by their warriors. Alexander died without forging his conquered territories into an empire but his generals held his possessions in \"West Asia and there emerged the Seleucid state in the region.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe contact with the Persians and the Greeks, op up north western part of the subcontinent to Persians and Greek cultural influences and to Persian and Greek population, using their own languages and scripts.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e It also resulted in lively commercial enterprise, and regions' like Bactria in the Oxus valley in north Afghanistan and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTaxila\u003c\/span\u003e near Islamabad in Pakistan became cultural and commercial centres of great importance. It is no wonder then after Magadha had consolidated its position in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e Valley by conquering all the \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;mso-bidi-font-weight:bold\"\u003eMahajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB;mso-bidi-font-weight: bold\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eof the region, it tried and succeeded in conquering the northwest also from the successors of Alexander. The rulers of Magadha also gradually expanded into the Deccan but we do not have the details of this history. However, the facts that \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e emperor Asoka's edicts are found right from Maharashtra across the Deccan to Andhra and that the territories of the extreme south were \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eAshoka's\u003c\/span\u003e friendly neighbours leave no doubt that \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e authority extended to Deccan.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe regions which were included within this vast \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e were very much different from one another geographically and culturally. How did the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e rulers rule over this vast empire effectively? Till recently it was believed by historians that \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e rulers, particularly \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e rulers, maintained very rigid and direct \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003econtrol over all parts of the empire through different types of officials and through a large standing army. This view is now partially questioned and it is doubted whether in such remote past it was possible to govern different parts of the empire so directly. The empire of course maintained a large standing army, as mentioned repeatedly in Greek accounts, and there were different centres in the empire, like \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTaxila\u003c\/span\u003e in the northwest, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eUjjayini\u003c\/span\u003e in \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMalwa\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSuvarnagiri\u003c\/span\u003e in the Deccan and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTosali\u003c\/span\u003e in Orissa through which supervisory control was exercised over different parts of the empire. There is also evidence that in-the cities, a very efficient system of administration, looked after by different committees, prevailed and that in the period of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryas\u003c\/span\u003e, the state exercised significant control in all areas of economic activities.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBut perhaps much more important than introducing efficient administrative measures was the question: how would the message of the emperor reach different sections of \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003epeople in the vast empire? One \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eway \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eof doing this was to project the power and \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003egoodwill of the emperor by undertaking public works arid building impressive monuments. Like other ancient \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eperors\u003c\/span\u003e, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e emperors and particularly the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryas\u003c\/span\u003e too did this by constructing canals and water reservoirs and digging wells, building roads, planting trees and organising medical treatment for men and animals. They also created splendid specimens of imperial art in the form of pillars and palaces with pillared halls. But the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e emperor Asoka adopted a more effective and direct method of reaching across to the subjects (\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003epraja\u003c\/span\u003e) of his empire, During his period we find a number of edicts on rocks, stone slabs and pillars which he placed in strategic parts \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eof \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ethe empire so that he could communicate directly with his subjects through 'them, In many cases the edicts open with:\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\"Thus says \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePriyadarsi\u003c\/span\u003e King, beloved of the gods\".\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eAsoka borrowed the concept from his \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eAchaemenid\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eprecedessors\u003c\/span\u003e of Persia but he did not use his edicts for projecting his greatness as a conqueror and administrator but \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ea\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ea\u003c\/span\u003e propagator of \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003edhamma\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e. \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn fact, what was unique about \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e empire in the \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eperiod of Asoka was that he saw \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003edhamma\u003c\/span\u003e, in addition to administrative efficiency, as \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003esome thing\u003c\/span\u003e which could' bind the people of the vast empire together. He abandoned territorial conquest for conquest by \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003edhamma\u003c\/span\u003e, he gave up tours of pleasure for \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003edhamma\u003c\/span\u003e tours and he enjoined his subjects to follow such simple tenets of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003edhamma\u003c\/span\u003e as non-violence, respect for others, and understanding of others' faiths and beliefs. A \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eoka's\u003c\/span\u003e vision of his empire was thus unique; like other ancient emperors he \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-style:italic\"\u003etoo \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003edepended on his army and his large administrative machinery to govern it, but he realised the stability of such a \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eheterogenous\u003c\/span\u003e empire could be ensured only by establishing harmonious relations between different individuals, between different communities and between different faiths.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e, however, did not last long and by about the beginning of the second Century B.C. it had declined. Only minor powers like the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSungas\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKanvas\u003c\/span\u003e held Magadha and some other areas for some time but they did not rule over as an empire. There are various opinions as to why the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e declined; you will read about them in Unit 22 of this Block. But though this .first Indian empire declined, it had great impact on regions it once controlled, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e made possible movement of people, merchants and religious leaders to different parts of the subcontinent on a significant scale. Thus new elements of culture such as the idea of the state, urban life, new religious thought, writing, coinage and so on travelled to different corners of India and provided impetus for cultural change. The rulers of Magadha also actively encouraged contacts with countries outside both in the south and in the north west and these contacts came to be of great significance in the, subsequent period. You will read about them in Block-VI.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eAcknowledgement: We are thankful to the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi for permitting us to use their photographs.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 6: \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eIndia :\u003c\/span\u003e Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eFrom Block.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eV, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eyou have come to learn that the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e, although it declined after the fall of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryas\u003c\/span\u003e in the beginning of the second century B.C., had a profound impact on the history of post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e India. In other words, although the political power of one region or one ruling family over the Indian sub-continent came to an end, it did not mean decline or \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eset back\u003c\/span\u003e for the society as a whole. On the other hand, the empire had initiated processes of change in many regions, and these processes of change reached a level of maturity in the post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMaurya\u003c\/span\u003e period. In Blocks VI and VII you shall be reading mainly about these changes. Block VI has two Units (23 and 24) which deal specifically with-north India. Two other Units (25 and 26) have a wider coverage; they tell us in general terms about certain aspects of culture in post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e India. While Unit 25 deals with major' changes in religion, Unit 26 discusses how art activities became widespread throughout India and what we may learn from the actual material which is available from the important centres of art of\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ethis\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e period.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe political history of north India, which is discussed in Unit 23, presents some new features. North western India had always been a region which had active contact with Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia. In the post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e period, population movements across Central Asia had direct impact on the political situation in north and \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003enorth west\u003c\/span\u003e India, particularly to the west of upper \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGanga\u003c\/span\u003e and Yamuna. The Greeks of Bactria (north Afghanistan) expanded and moved down across the Hindu Kush. Their rule extended to the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePanjab\u003c\/span\u003e. The Greeks or the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eYavanas\u003c\/span\u003e (as they were known in India) were followed by the 'Scythians (\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSakas\u003c\/span\u003e) and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eParthians\u003c\/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePahlavas\u003c\/span\u003e) and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKushanas\u003c\/span\u003e, a branch of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eYuch\u003c\/span\u003e-Chi of course, the movements did not stop here and in later periods \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003etoo\u003c\/span\u003e the movements of people across the northwest frontier continued.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIt would, however, be wrong to think that north and northwest India was under foreign domination in this period. The distinction between foreign and Indian was not clear in that period, and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eYavanas\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSakas\u003c\/span\u003e, etc. in any case became part of the population of the Indian sub-continent. Further, there were different areas in the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePanjab\u003c\/span\u003e, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh where small local states were being ruled either by minor royal families or by members of dominant clans like the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eAudumbaras\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eYaudheyas\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eMalavas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e and so on. Under the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSakas\u003c\/span\u003e and\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ethe\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKushanas\u003c\/span\u003e, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKsbatrapas\u003c\/span\u003e, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMabadandanayakas\u003c\/span\u003e and other officials also exercised con \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eiderable\u003c\/span\u003e local authority. The political map of north India in the post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMaurya\u003c\/span\u003e period was therefore vastly different from the political map of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e India.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe simultaneous existence of small powers- along with some major powers does not mean that contacts between different regions came to an end. In fact, the communications between different regions for trade and other purposes, which had begun earlier, became much more intense during this period. This is the main theme which is dealt with in Unit 24. Although the unit deals with north India, it does not mean that communication was limited within north India or to trade alone. The Indian sub-continent as a whole had links in this period with central Asia, parts of western Asia, the Mediterranean world including north Egypt, and to some extent with Southeast Asia and with China through Central Asia and Southeast Asia. These links were not limited to importing and exporting goods for trade only; they also meant movements of people and movements of ideas with people. Within India all these activities had profound impact on society. For example, this is the period in which the towns and cities, which had originated much earlier, reached their most prosperous phase. Another evidence of this kind is that the largest quantity of coins was minted in this period; even clans like the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eAudumbaras\u003c\/span\u003e and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eYaudheyas\u003c\/span\u003e, who were earlier known only as warriors, were minting coins, sometimes in imitation of Greek and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKushana\u003c\/span\u003e coins.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe changes within the Indian society are most evident in religion (Unit 25) and art (Unit 26). In religion, even Buddhism and Jainism, which originally began as protests against orthodox \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanical\u003c\/span\u003e ideas and religious practices, changed substantially and there were divisions within both Buddhist and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJaina\u003c\/span\u003e orders. One of the chief features which came to characterize all \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ereligions,\u003c\/span\u003e is that worship of a deity in the shape of an .image or an idol became a dominant religious practice. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eBoth Buddha 'and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eJaina\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTirthankaras\u003c\/span\u003e became deities and no longer remained as religious teachers only.\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ein\u003c\/span\u003e all religions again many earlier \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003elocal beliefs. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003elocal\u003c\/span\u003e cults. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003elocal\u003c\/span\u003e gods and symbols were assimilated. In \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanical\u003c\/span\u003e religion the trend was towards formation of groups around major deities. Thus Vishnu and Siva emerged as two major deities by assimilating or associating other deities with them. \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eOne \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eexample is that \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eUma\u003c\/span\u003e, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSakti\u003c\/span\u003e of Siva. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eherself\u003c\/span\u003e symbolised combination of many goddesses both Indian and non-Indian.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eWith changes in Buddhism, Jainism and also in the character of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanic\u003c\/span\u003e 8l religion.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003evarious\u003c\/span\u003e groups in society are seen extending their patronage to one religion or the other. This is reflected also in the activities of the period. Evidence of art activities is found in the religious centres - at the \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eStupas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eViharas\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eearly temples and so on. Buddhism had the largest support in this period, and it travelled to countries outside India along with merchants and monks. Influence of art of other regions like Central Asia and Hellenistic world is seen on Indian art. This was a result of regular contact with these regions and of support to Buddhism, but this influence is seen not only in Buddhist art bur on the art activities of the period in general. In any case, creations of art of a high order did not depend on support from the royalty or the state alone; they drew support from a wide social base.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 7: State and Society in South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn Block 6 you read about different aspects of political, economic and cultural change that took place in north India in the post - \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e period (200 B. C. - 300 A. D.). In the five units of this Block you will be reading about the changes that peninsular India, which includes both the Deccan and the extreme south, was experiencing in this period.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUnits 27 and 28 deal with the problem of the emergence of the institution of the State in the Deccan and the South.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e You have read in Blocks IV and V how the beginnings of territorial states in north India were represented first by the sixteen \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMahajanpadas\u003c\/span\u003e which originated in the 6th-5th Centuries B.C. and how over the next few centuries Magadha built a formidable state covering almost the entire Indian subcontinent. In peninsular India, the first rulers were local kings and some important families, like those of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMaharathis\u003c\/span\u003e, who started minting their own coins from about the second century B.C. but the first organized state in the Deccan was built by the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eSatavahanas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e .\u003c\/span\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003esee\u003c\/span\u003e Unit 27). In the far south, in the area represented by present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala, an identical change did not take place in this period. In different regions of the south, power was wielded by chiefs who are known to us from poems written in their praise by bards. Among them, the chiefs of the Cholas, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePandyas\u003c\/span\u003e and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eCheras\u003c\/span\u003e were like kings who commanded immense agricultural resources and profits from trade. In fact, the society of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilaham\u003c\/span\u003e or the far south was going through a phase of many changes and cannot at all be considered a society with a single structure. There were many major differences between different sub-regions of the far south. These differences were expressed, in the early Tamil poems, in the different styles of life followed in different sub-regions in \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilham\u003c\/span\u003e, the name by which the far south was known. The different sub-regions like hilly areas, river-valleys, coastal areas, grassland areas were viewed as representing different \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003etinais\u003c\/span\u003e ( explained as eco-zones in unit 28) in the early Tamil poem collections of which are known as \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSangam\u003c\/span\u003e. These poems, in addition to other literary references and archaeology, suggested that early south Indian society was dominated by the major chiefdoms of the Cholas, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePandyas\u003c\/span\u003e and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eCheras\u003c\/span\u003e and many other chiefs of varying importance. The big chiefs controlled the river valleys where agrarian settlements were expanding (see Unit 29) and also the coastal ports which were becoming prosperous because of lucrative trade. Besides, they derived considerable resources from tribute, plunder and other means, although a regular system of taxation does not seem to have been known. They as well chiefs of other categories, extended patronage to bards and other dependents and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e also had started receiving considerable patronage and importance in early Tamil society. Thus, although a full-fledged state may not have emerged, there were sufficient indications of contact with \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmanical\u003c\/span\u003e ideology and society of the north and of major social inequalities existing within the society of early \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilaharn\u003c\/span\u003e.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eApart from differences in political organization, there were other differences between the society of the Deccan and the society of the far south in this period. It was not only \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahamanism\u003c\/span\u003e which had taken a firm hold of the society; more widespread was Buddhism, as is evident from the number of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003estupas\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBudhist\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eviharas\u003c\/span\u003e (monastic establishments) which came up in the Deccan during this period. This was made possible by the generous gifts given to the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003estupas'\u003c\/span\u003e and the monks of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eviharas\u003c\/span\u003e not only by kings and officials but also by merchants, artisans and others. Much of the wealth of the Deccan in this period was derived from different types of trade, a special feature of which was the development of commercial contact with the Roman world. This contact affected both the Deccan and the far south, but judging by the number of towns and cities in the Deccan of this period, it would appear that the impact of this trade was greater in this region than in \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilaham\u003c\/span\u003e (see Unit 30).\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThe final Unit (Unit \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e31) \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ediscusses important aspects of early Tamil literature and language. As the Vedic texts are the earliest specimens of the Sanskrit language so are the Tamil poems, collectively known as the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSangam\u003c\/span\u003e, and a few short inscriptions, the earliest specimens of Dravidian languages. The \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSangam\u003c\/span\u003e poems were orally composed much before they were classified and compiled in the form of collections. They \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ewere, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ealso not concerned directly with religious rites and practices, as the Vedic texts were. However, for students of history, the texts as well as the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSangam\u003c\/span\u003e poems are important sources of information about the societies which produced them. You have learnt in Block 3 how historians use the evidence of the Vedic texts to analyze the transition from early Vedic to later Vedic society; the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSangam\u003c\/span\u003e poems, similarly, help historians analyse the changes through which society was moving in early \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilaham\u003c\/span\u003e or the far south in the early centuries of the Christian era.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 8: Indian \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ePolity :\u003c\/span\u003e B.C. 300 to 800 A.D.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eThis Block is going to focus mainly on the political history of both north India and peninsular India from the beginning of the fourth century to the eighth century A.D. You \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eh've\u003c\/span\u003e read in Blocks 6 and 7 about the political situation in north India and peninsular India in the post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e period. You must have noticed that compared to the pre-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e periods, the number of ruling families had increased considerably in the post- \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e period. This means that: (\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ei\u003c\/span\u003e) more and more areas were experiencing the emergence of local states; these states which may have been small were represented mostly by local ruling families, (ii) when large state structures arose these small local states either' lost their separate existence obey continued as subordinates within the larger states.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eOne larger state structure which began to emerge from the beginning of the fourth century A.D. was that of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e. In Unit 32 you will read about the political and other aspects of the history of the Gupta period. The Gupta power, at its peak, extended from Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat in the west to-Bengal in the east-and from northwest India in the north of Madhya Pradesh in the south. This however does not mean' that this entire area was directly ruled by the central authority; there were areas like- Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e administered through officials appointed by them; even in far-flung \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSaurashtra\u003c\/span\u003e in Gujarat governors were appointed by Gupta rulers like \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSkandagupta\u003c\/span\u003e.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eElsewhere, as in \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMalwa\u003c\/span\u003e regions, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e maintained their suzerainty through political and matrimonial alliances with various autonomous powers: In Unit 33 you will read about the administrative, economic and social aspects of the Gupta period. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ethis\u003c\/span\u003e Unit will attempt- to familiarize you with some of the significant changes which. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ewere\u003c\/span\u003e taking place in society and which greatly changed the character of the society in the post-Gupta period. You will read more about these changes in Block 9 but Units 34 and 35 of this Block introduce to you what major changes were taking place in the political structure of the country.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn Unit 34 you will notice that in the post-Gupta period, a number of new political powers emerged in different parts of north India. This may give the impression that political authority was-very fragmented and that this was the result of the weakening of the central authority. But when you look at it from a different angle you will realize that formation of new political powers was a continuous process in early India history. Further, the political powers like 'the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePalas\u003c\/span\u003e of Bengal, the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGurjara-Pratiharas\u003c\/span\u003e and others who emerged in Rajasthan or the kingdom of Kashmir did not last for only one generation as did the large state structure of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eHarsha\u003c\/span\u003e. They were more stable, they had their bases in the regions in which they emerged and in many cases they marked the beginning of the political identity of a region or a sub-region. In Unit 35 you will be reading about the kingdoms which emerged in-peninsular India in the post-\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSatavahana\u003c\/span\u003e period. Here too you will notice that the minor ruling families became gradually subordinates to the powers of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePallavas\u003c\/span\u003e of coastal \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilnadu\u003c\/span\u003e and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eChalukyas\u003c\/span\u003e of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBadami\u003c\/span\u003e in north Karnataka, The basis of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ePallava\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eChalukya\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003epowerwere\u003c\/span\u003e important political sub-regions, respectively in \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilnadu\u003c\/span\u003e and' Karnataka.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBook 9: Transition to Early Medieval India\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIn Block 8 you have already read that certain important changes had started taking shape in the Gupta period, and in the four Units of this Block you will read how these changes, both in the Gupta and in the post-Gupta periods, may together be taken to mark the beginning of a new period in Indian history. Historians have come to think that the ancient phase of Indian history came to an end now and the period, approximately between the sixth century and the eighth century, may be considered to mark the beginning of the early medieval phase. You will notice that the change from one phase of history to another was not simply a matter of change from one ruling family to another or even a change from an imperial power like the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e to the rise of comparatively insignificant local states. This was a change which gave new shape to various spheres of life: political, economic, social, religious and so on. This Block is, therefore, concerned with such questions as you are expected to ask:\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eWhat were the major changes which affected different spheres of life?\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eWhy should these changes be taken to mark the beginning of a new phase of \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ehistory ?\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eWhy did these changes take place?\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eYou may have noticed that the political map of the Gupta period was vastly different from the political map of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMaurya\u003c\/span\u003e period. It is not only that the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e ruled over an empire which was less extensive than the empire of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryas\u003c\/span\u003e. It is that the regions outside the Gupta empire as well inside the Gupta \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eempire\u003c\/span\u003e had numerous ruling families of various categories. Although, we know from the Allahabad \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eprasasti\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eor the eulogy of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSamudra\u003c\/span\u003e Gupta that many rulers were subjugated by \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eSamudragupta\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003emilny\u003c\/span\u003e of them continued in remote areas, and one significant reference found in the Gupta inscription is to \"eighteen \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eatavi\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e - \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003erajyas\u003c\/span\u003e\" \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eor to forest kingdoms. You know that Asoka \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMaurya\u003c\/span\u003e referred of the forest people of his empire in the context of the problems they were creating for him; the appearance of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003erajyas\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eOf\u003c\/span\u003e kingdoms in forest regions and other are \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003easin\u003c\/span\u003e Gupta period marked a significant change in the political structure and in political relations from the Gupta period onward. The grants of lands by kings may also have created such strata of landholders who also wielded political power in their areas. So, many new developments continued to result in a new kind of polity in which it was not only the King who was the symbol of political authority. Political authority in the new set \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eup,\u003c\/span\u003e was shared with rulers of various kinds, such as the \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003esamantas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003emahasamantas\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003emandalesvaras\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003emahamandalesvaras\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003emandalikas\u003c\/span\u003e, \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003erautas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eranakas\u003c\/span\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eand so on.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ePolitical authority had its base in the control of land, and therefore the emergence of different types of authorities, political as well as those associated with political, also meant major changes in agrarian and revenue systems. In areas where land was given to \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ebrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e, temples and other beneficiaries; the recipients of grants started exercising various types of authority on cultivators and other sections of rural people. The decline of trade and of urban settlements also put considerable' strain on the economy which was essentially dependent on resources from land. The presence on resources from land led to imposition by ruling authorities and by those who were closely associated with them, of many, taxes and levies on cultivators. Historians have shown that the number of dues which the peasants had to pay in post-Gupta times was much more than in earlier periods. It would however be wrong to think that the peasants were, as an entire community reduced to complex servitude. Here too the situation was complex. There were different categories of cultivators from landless to rich ones and dominant peasant or tribal groups could aspire for political power as well. At least this is what happened in tribal pockets where many new ruling families emerged from within the localities.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eChanges within the society in which the four \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003evarnas\u003c\/span\u003e were known as well as across different regions are best illustrated by the nature of the caste system of the early medieval period.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e New castes, like the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eKayastha\u003c\/span\u003e caste emerged from the Gupta period onward: many older communities and professions developed characteristics of castes and sub-castes. In many regions, existing social groups were put in one or two broad categories and were contrasted. \u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003ewith\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003ebrahmanas\u003c\/span\u003e as another broad category. Thus, there appeared the broad division of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eBrahmana\u003c\/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003eSudra\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"GramE\"\u003e,\u003c\/span\u003e although within each division there were numerous sub-divisions.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eContents\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003ctable class=\"MsoTableGrid\" border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-yfti-tbllook:1184;mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;mso-border-insideh:none;mso-border-insidev:none\"\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 55.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e1 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eEnvironment And Early Patterns of Adaptation\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:1\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 1\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eIndia: Physical Features\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e7\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:2\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUN\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIT \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e2\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eRegions in Indian History: Formation and Characteristics \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e21\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:3\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 3\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eHunter-Gatherers: Archaeological Perspective\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e33\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:4\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 4\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eOrigins of Agriculture and Domestication of Animals\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e43\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:5\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 55.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 55.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e2 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eHarappan\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e Civilization \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:6\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 5\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eAntecedents, Chronology and Geographical Spread\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:7\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 6\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eMaterial Characteristics\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e16\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:8\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 7\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eNature of Contacts\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e29\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:9\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 8\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eSociety and Religion\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e39\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:10\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 9\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eDiffusion \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eand Decline\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e49\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:11\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:18.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 62.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e3 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:14.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eEvolution of Early Indian Society: 2000 B.C. to 1000 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eB.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:12\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 10\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eChalcolithic\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e and-Early Iron Age-I\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:13\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 11\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eChalcolithic\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e and Early Iron Age-II\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e30\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:14\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 12\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eThe Early Vedic Society\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e42\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:15\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 13\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eChanges in The Later Vedic Phase\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e53\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:16\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 58.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e4 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eIndia: 6\u003csup\u003eTH\u003c\/sup\u003e to 4\u003csup\u003eTH\u003c\/sup\u003e Century B.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:17\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 14\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eJanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e and the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMalllajanapadas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:18\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 15 \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eRise of Urban Centres\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e19\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:19\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 16\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eSociety and Economy \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e30\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:20\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 17\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eBuddhism, Jainism and Other Religious Ideas\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e41\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:21\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 62.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003ePolity, Society And Economy: 320 B.C. to 200 B.C.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:22\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 18\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eMagadhan\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e Territorial Expansion \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:23\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 19\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eEconomy of the \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eMauryan\u003c\/span\u003e \u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eEmpire\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e20\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:24\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 20\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eAdministrative Organisation and Relationship with Other Powers\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e32\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:25\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 21\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eAsoka's Policy of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eDhamma\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e46\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:26\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 22\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eDisintegration of the Empire\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e56\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:27\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 59.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e6 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eIndia : Century 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:28\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 23\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eNorthern-Western and Northern India\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:29\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 16.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUN\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIT 24\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eExpansion in Network of Trade and Urbanisation\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e15\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:30\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 25\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eDevelopment in Religion\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e26\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:31\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 26\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:13.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eArt and Architecture\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:32\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 56.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e7 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eState And Society In South India: 200 B.C. to 300 A.D.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:33\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 27\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eEarly State Formation in Deccan\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:34\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 28\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eEarly State Formation in South India (\u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eTamilaham\u003c\/span\u003e)\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e12\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:35\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 29\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eAgrarian Settlements and Agrarian Society in Peninsular India\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e17\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:36\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 30\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eExpansion of Trade and Urban Centres\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e28\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:37\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 31\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eGrowth of Tamil Language and Literature\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:11.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e41\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:38\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:9.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock 8 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eIndian Polity: B.C. 300-800 A.D.\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:39\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 32\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eRise and Growth of \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:40\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 33\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eEconomy, Society and Polity: \u003cspan class=\"SpellE\"\u003eGuptas\u003c\/span\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e16\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:41\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 34\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003ePost-Gupta Kingdoms in North India\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e25\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:42\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 35\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eKingdoms in the Deccan and the South\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e33\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:43\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:10.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eBlock \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight:normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 54.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e9 \u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:14.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eTransition to Early Medieval India\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:44\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 36\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eChanges in Economy\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e5\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:45\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 37\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eChanges in Society\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e15\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:46\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 38\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eStructure of Polity \u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"31\" style=\"width:23.3pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" align=\"center\" style=\"text-align:center\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003e25\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003c\/tr\u003e \u003ctr style=\"mso-yfti-irow:47;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes\"\u003e \u003ctd width=\"85\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:64.0pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\" style=\"text-align:justify\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB\"\u003eUNIT 39\u003cp\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003c\/td\u003e \u003ctd width=\"491\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width:367.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt\"\u003e \u003cp class=\"Style\"\u003e\u003cspan lang=\"EN-GB\" style=\"mso-bidi-font-size:12.5pt;mso-ansi-language: EN-GB\"\u003eDevelopments in Religion\u003c\/span\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e 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