A History of Indian Logic (Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools)

The author has in this work clearly marked the principal stages of Indian logic in the vast period of about two thousand years beginning from 640 B.C. and has traced how from Anviksiki - the science of debate, Indian logic developed into the science of knowledge - Pramanasastra and then into the science of dialectics - Prakarana of Tarkasastra.

The treatment of the subject is both historical and critical. The author has traced some Greek influence on Indian logic. For instance he has shown how the five-membered syllogism of Aristotle found its way through Alexandria, Syria and other countries into Taxila and got amalgamated with Nyaya doctrine of inference.

The book is one of the pioneer works on the subject. It has drawn on original sources exhaustively. Besides the preface, introduction, foreword and table of contents, the work contains several appendices and indexes.

It pleased His Excellency the Earl of Ronaldshay, G.C.I.E., the Governor of Bengal, to utter these memorable words while presiding at the Convocation of the Calcutta University in the year 1918 :- “That an Indian student should pass through a course of philosophy at an Indian University without ever hearing mention of, shall I say, Sankara, the thinker who, perhaps, his carried idealism further than any other thinker of any other age or country, or of the subtleties of the Nyaya system which has been handed down through immemorial ages and is to-day the pride and glory of the tols of Navadvipa, does, indeed, appear lo me to be a profound anomaly.”

Words like these coming from one who is himself a keen and ardent student of Indian Philosophy and a scrupulous and sympathetic ruler, came upon me, who have the good fortune to belong to Navadvipa, “with double sway” and supplied the inspiration which sustained me in this my humble attempt to present a history of Indian Logic or Nyaya Darsana before the English-knowing public.

It was my revered preceptors Mahamahopadhyaya Mohesh Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I.E., Principal, Sanskrit-College, Calcutta, and Mahamahopadhyaya Jadunath Sarvabhauma of Navadvipa, who (the first by his lecture on Bhasaparicheda and Siddhanta-muktavali, and the second by his lectures on Kusumanjali and Atma-tattva-viveka) first awakened in me an interest in the study of Indian Logic. That was about the year 1892. Subsequently I read Modern Logic, viz. Tattvacintamani and Sabda-sakti-prakasika under Pandit Bamacharan Nyayacharya and Raghunatha Siromani’s Didhiti under Pandit Jibanath Misra, both of Benares College.

I searched out and studied most of the books and manuscripts on the subject of Hindu Logic to be found in the Sanskrit College library and the Asiatic Society of Bengal and occasionally consulted works supplied by the Deccan College, Poona, and Benares Sanskrit College. I thus put myself in the way of acquiring some acquaintance with Indian Logic and from time to time published several books and articles on Nyaya.

With regard to Jaina Logic, I derived valuable help from my teacher, Sastra-visarada Jainacarya Vijayadharma Suri, Pandit Indravijaya Upedhyaya and occasionally from Pandit Haragovind Seth Nyayatirtha. I gathered Jaina books from various Jaina Societies and Publishing Houses such as those at Benares, Azimganj, Arrah, Bhavnagar, etc. I also used a large number of Jaina manuscripts, of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Deccan College, Poona, etc., besides those in the possession of the aforesaid Venerable Vijayadharma Suri.

As regards Buddhistic Logic, I could not get much help from Pali sources, because neither in the Buddhistic Soriptures introduced into Ceylon in 254 B.C by Mahendra, son of Asoka, nor in the Buddhistic books recorded in writing in 88 B.C. by Vatta-gamini, is there any trace of a systematic culture of Nyaya. Even during my visit to Ceylon in 1909 (Appendix K), I did not come across in that island any evidence of Nyaya-study. On this subject I have derived materials to some extent from Chinese, but, mostly from Tibetan sources. Professor Kimura occasionally helped me in dealing with Chinese materials. Concerning the Tibetan sources almost all the materials were derived from Bstan-hgyur some volumes whereof were lent to me by the India office through the courtesy of Dr. F. W. Thomas. Through the kindness of Lord Curzon, the then viceroy of India, I was enabled to retain temporarily for my use some other volumes of Bstan-hgyur brought down from Gyantes during the Tibet Mission of 1904. To secure further materials bearing on the subject of Buddhistic Logic I visited Labrang and Pamyangchi monasteries in June 1907 and October 1908, respectively (Appendices I and J), and came across a world of facts for observation and comment. Since the opening of increased intercourse between India and Tibet consequent upon the Tashi Lama’s visit to India in 1905 (of which an account is given in Appendix H), batches of Tibetan traders have been pouring into India and from them four copies of, Bstan-hgyur have been obtained since 1911, of which one is with me, one in the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, one (a fragmentary copy) in the Sahitya-Parishad Library, and one in the Calcutta University Library.

In regard to the chapters on modern Logic I occasionally consulted some scholars among whom Mahamahopadhyaya Pramatha Nath Tarkabhusana, Mahamahopadhaya Gurucharan Tarka-darsana-tirtha, Mahamahopadhyaya Lakshman Sastri, Mahamahopadhyaya Vindhyeswari and Pandit Jamini Nath Tarka-vagisa may be gratefully mentioned.

My thanks are due to Hon’ble Mr. W. W. Hornell, Director of Public Instruction, Bengal, who very kindly looked through the first batch of manuscripts and made many suggestions which have stood me in great stead in preparing the volume. I am also grateful to Rev. A. Johnstone, M.A., Principal, C.M.S. College, for having revised manuscripts as well as the proofs of the portion dealing with ancient Logic. Mr. F. J. Monahan, I.C.S., Commissioner, Presidency Division, looked through a few galleys and when he left for England, the work of revision was very kindly undertaken by Dr. W. S. Urquhart, of the Scottish Churches College, to whom I offer my thinks. My special thanks are due to Dr. H Stephen of the Calcutta University for the interest and thoroughness with which he examined all the proofs of the present volume. The book however could not have seen the light nor assumed its present form were it not for help of various kinds received from that Macenas of letters- I mean the Hon’ble Justice Sir Asutosh Mukherji, Sarasvati, whose name is inseparably associated with every form of educational work in Bengali, who has spent the best years of his life in effecting various improvements in the status of the Calcutta University, and who above anything else is the typical man of action-a great Karmayogin-unswerving in his aim and fixity of purpose, selfless in his devotion to work, pursuing it through life regardless of malediction or benediction, praise or blame.

My object, in this volume is to write the history of what is called Nyaya, one of the six schools into which orthodox philosophy in India is divided. The word ‘logic,’ although it is in common parlance held synonymous with Indian Nyaya, is not exactly identical with it. Logic covers some of the subjects of Nyaya as well as Vaisesika and is not co-extensive with either.

Indian Logic has been differently defined in different ages but the definition generally accepted is the science which ascertains valid knowledge either by means of the six senses or by means of the five members of the syllogism; in other words, perception and inference are the subject-matter of Logic.

In my anxiety to assign a proper place to Jaina and Buddhistic Logic, which played no inconsiderable part in the development of the science of reasoning in India, I have made a departure from the time-honoured classification of Indian Logic into Ancient and Modern and have added an intermediate stage-thus dividing it into three periods. Ancient (650 B.C.- 100 A.D.), Mediaeval (up to 1200 A.D.) and Modern (from 900 A.D.). The standard texts for each of these periods were Nyaya-Sutra by Aksapada, Pramana-samuccaya by Dignaga and Tattva cintamani by Gangesa Upadhyaya respectively. The wide popularity of these works is evidenced by the large numbers of commentaries that have been written upon them, as mentioned below :-

l. Nyaya-sutra by Aksapada Gautama.

2. Nyaya-bhasya by Vatsyayana.
3. Nyaya-vartika by Udyotakara.
4. Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-tika by Vacaspati Misra.
5. Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-tika-parisuddhi by Udayanacarya.
6. Nyaya-nibandha-prakasa by Vardhamana.
7. Nyayalankara by Srikantha.
8. Nyaya-vrtti by Abhayatilaka Upadhyaya.
9. Nyaya-sutroddhara by Vacaspati Misra.
10. Nyaya-rahasya by Ramabhadra.
11. Nyaya-siddhanta-mala by Jayrama.
12. Nyaya-sutra-vrtti by Visvanatha Siddhantapancanana.
13. Nyaya-samksepa by Govinda Sanna.

1. Pramana-samuccaya by Dignaga.

2. Pramana-samuccaya-vrtti by Dignaga.
3. Pramana-vartika-karika by Dharmakirti.
4. Pramana-vartika-vrtti by Dharnakirti.
5. Pramana-vartika-panjika by Devendrabodhi.
6. Pramana-vartika-panjika-tika by Sakvabodhi.
7. Pramana-vartika-vrtti by Ravi Gupta.
8. Pramana-samuccaya-tika (Visalamalavati-nama) by Jinendra-bodhi.
> 9. Pramana-vartikalankara by Prajnakara Gupta.
10. Pramana-vartikalankara-tika by Jina
11. Pramana-vartikalankara by Yamari.
12. Pramana-vartika-tika by Sankarananda.

1. Tattva-cintamani by Gangesa.

2. Tattva-cintamani-prakasa by Vardhamana Upadhyaya.
3 Tattva-cintamani-aloka by Paksadhara Misra.
4 Tattva-cintamani-prakasa by Rucidatta.
5. Tattva-cintamani-mayukha by Sankara Misra.
6. Anumana-khanda-tika by Vacaspati Misra.
7. Tattva-cintamani-prakasa by Haridasa Nyayalankara.
8. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti by Raghunatha Siromani.
9. Mani-vyakhya by Kanada Tarkavagisa.
10. Tattva-cintamani-rahasya by Mathuranatha.
11. Tatva-cintamani-didhiti prasarini by Krsnadasa Sarvabhauma.
12. Tattva-cintamani-mayukha by Jagadisa Tarkalankara.
13. Tattva-cintamani-tika by Bhavananda Siddhantavagisa.
14. Tattva-cintamani-tika by Harirama Tarkavagisa.
15. Tattva-cintamani-gudhartha-dipika by Raghudeva Nyaya-lankara.
16. Tattva-cintamani - vyakhya by Gadadhara Bhattacarya.

17. Aloka-darpana by Mahesa Thakkura.
18. Tattva-cintamani-aloka-parisista by Devanatha Thakura.
19. Tattva-cintamani-aloka-kantakoddhara by Madhusudana Thakkura.
20. Tattva-cintamani-aloka-rahasya by Mathuranatha Tarka-vagisa.
21. Didhiti-rahasya by Mathuranatha Tarkavagisa.
22. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-prasarini by Krsnadasa Sarvabhauma.
23. Anumanaloka-prasarini-on Paksadhara by krsnadasa.
24. Sabdaloka-viveka by Gunananda Vidyavagisa.
25. Didhiti-tika by Ramabhadra Sarvabhauma.
26. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-prakasika by Jagadisa Tarkalankara.
27. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-gudhartha-vidyotana by Jayarama Nyayapancanana.
28. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-prakasika by Bhavananda Siddhantavagisa.
29. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-pariksa by Rudra Nyayavacaspati.
30. Didhiti-tika by Raghudeva Nyayalankara.
31. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-prakasika by Gadadhara.
32. Tattva-cintamani-didhiti-tika by Ramarudra Tarkavagisa.

33. Tattva kalisankari-patrika by Kalisankara.
34. Tattva candri-patrika by Candra Narayana.
35. Tattva-raudri-patrika by Rudra Narayana, etc.

Of all the nations of the world the Hindus and the Greeks appear to have developed systems of logic to a large extent in- dependently of each other. Hindu Logic in its rudimentary stage can be traced as early as the 6th century before Christ. Greek Logic assumed a definite form in the fourth century B.C. though its germs can be traced a little earlier in the controversies of the Sophists and Socrates. But so far as the five-limbed syllogism of Hindu Logic is concerned the Hindu logician may have been indebted some way or other to the Greeks. While the syllogism was definitely formulated as a logical doctrine by Aristotle in his Rhetoric, Prior Analytics and Posterior Analytics in the 4th century B.C., the Hindu logician shows but a vague conception of it as late as the 1st century B.C. It is not inconceivable that the knowledge of Aristotle’s logic found its way through Alexandria, Syria and other countries into Taxila (vide Appendix A). This is rightly corroborated by the Hindu tradition that Narada who visited Alexandria (Svetadvipa) and became an expert in the handling of the five limbed syllogism. So simple is syllogistic structure that it does not seem to require any theory of gradual development to explain its growth. And Aristotle might have conceived the idea of syllogistic form into which all reasoning could be put as a complete whole.

I am inclined, therefore, to think that the syllogism did not actually evolve in Indian Logic out of inference and that the Hindu logician owed the idea of syllogism to the influence of Aristotle (vide Appendix B). To me it is one of the most important enquiries in the history of Indian Logic to ascertain at what stage the doctrine of inference, which was an indigenous growth, was happily amalgamated with the borrowed art of syllogism into a common structure of logical thought. The Buddhist work Kathavatthu furnishes several logical terms, e.g. upanayana, nigamana, etc., of syllogistic reasoning. But we find not a single instance where these terms have been methodically combined so as to form a syllogism proper. An attempt has been made to discuss the point at issue in the Appendix B, and I leave it to the reader to take my views for what they are worth.

Ancient logic was called Anviksiki, or the science of debate, but with the introduction of syllogism or proper reasoning it came to be called Nyaya from the 1st century A.D. The Nyaya-Sasha in its earliest age flourished in Mithila with Gotama but it attained its high development in Prabhasa with Aksapada. The mediaeval logic from the 4th century A.D. was called Pramana Sastra, inasmuch as it dealt with pramana, the means of valid knowledge, i.e. perception and inference. Ujjaini in Malwa and Valabhi in Gujarat were the scenes of activity of the Jaina logicians of the Svetambara sect. The Digambaras flourished principally in Pataliputra and Dravida (including Karnata) about the 8th century A.D. Buddhist logicians flourished in universities such as Kancipura, Nalanda (vide Appendix C), Odantapuri, Sri-dhanya-kataka, Kasmira and Vikramasila (vide Appendix E). In Bengal Buddhist Logic attained its highest development during the reigns of the kings of the Pal dynasty (vide Appendix D). Modern Logic commenced from the 10th century A.D. and was, in its stage, called Prakarana or the Manual of Logic, but its real life began from the 13th century A.D., since when it has been called Tarka-Sastra or the science of Dialectics. It flourished in the University of Mithile (vide Appendix F) during 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, and afterwards that of Nadia (vide Appendix G) became its stronghold from the l6th century onwards.

Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhushan came of a respectable Brahmana family of Faridpore. He was the third son of the well-known Pandit Pitambar Vidyavagisa and was born on the 30th July, 1870, in the village of Khalkula in Faridpore. Satischandra was an infant four years old when he lost his father. The family was large and yet had no earning member; and the eldest son Biswamber Jyotisarnava who was then only sixteen maintained the family under circumstances of great difficulty.

Satischandra first went to the village school at the early age of five and rapidly made his mark amongst his fellow students. He stood first in the Minor Vernacular Examination from his Division and secured a scholarship which enabled him to proceed to Navadvip and take admission into the Hindu School. He passed the Entrance Examination of the Calcutta University in 1888, and obtained a scholarship which helped him to come to Calcutta and take his admission into the City College. In due course he passed the F.A. Examination and then migrated to the Krishnagar College. He took his B.A. degree with Honours in Sanskrit in 1892, and in the following year passed the M.A. Examination in Sanskrit from the Calcutta Sanskrit College. Meanwhile he had distinguished himself at the Sanskrit Examination held by the Vidagdha Janani Sabha of Navadwip and had obtained the title of Vidyabhusana. It may be mentioned here that while still an undergraduate student in the City College he had married in 1889 the youngest daughter of Babu Gangadhar Acharyya, the first Principal of the Midnapore College.

In 1893, shortly after Satischandra had passed the M.A. Examination in Sanskrit he settled at Krishnagar as Professor of Sanskrit, in the local college. Here he had special opportunity to study Sanskrit Kavya from Mahamahopadhyaya Ajitnath Nyayaratna and Sanskrit Nyaya from Mahamahopadhyaya Jadunath Sarvabhauma, each the recognised authority on his special subject. Some years later his services were lent by the Government of Bengal to the Buddhist Text Society under whose auspices he edited a number of useful Pali Texts and published several original papers which attracted the attention of scholars in Europe and America. About this time he came into contact with Rai Saratchandra Das, Bahadur, C.I .E., the distinguished Tibetan Explorer at whose request his services were again lent by the Government for three years to assist in the preparation of a Tibetan-English Dictionary. He was in Darjeeling for this purpose from 1897-1900 and utilised the opportunity to acquire a thorough mastery over the Tibetan language with the help of the celebrated Lama Funchhog Wangdan of Lhasa, then resident at Darjeeling. In December, 1900, Satischandra came to Calcutta as a Professor in the Sanskrit College. At about this period he acquired a thorough knowledge of Pali from Sramanas of Ceylon and Burma. In November, 1901, he appeared a second time at the M.A. Examination of the Calcutta University and chose Pali as his special subject. The University authorities were placed in a difficulty to find a suitable examiner. Ultimately Mr. C. H. Tawney and Prof. E. B. Cowell who had for many years been connected with the University arranged with Professor T. W. Rhys Davids to conduct the examination. Satischandra achieved high distinction and his attainments were specially praised by the distinguished examiner. In March, 1902, he was transferred to the Presidency College as Professor of Sanskrit. In December, 1905, the Tashi Lama came to India in order to visit the places sacred to Buddhists. Satischandra was deputed by the Government to accompany him, to act as Interpreter and to explain to him the histories and customs at the old Buddhist holy places. The Tashi Lama was highly pleased and presented Satischandra with a Khatag (silken upper garment) in token of high regard. On the 1st January, 1906, the Governor-General bestowed upon him the coveted title of Mahamahopadhyeya. In 1907, on my nomination, Lord Minto, then Chancellor- of the Calcutta University appointed him an Ordinary Fellow. At the same time he became a Fellow of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and Joint, Philological Secretary. In 1908, the University conferred on him the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded him the Griffith Prize for original research. About this time the question of Principalship of the Sanskrit College had come under the consideration of the Government of Bengal and the suggestion had been put forward that a European scholar should be appointed. The Lieutenant-Governor felt doubtful as to the advisability of such a step and discussed the matter with me as Vice-Chancellor of the University. I expressed my emphatic disapproval of the course proposed and expressed the opinion that Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhushan world be found admirably qualified for the Principalship if he were offered facilities for -further training. This view prevailed and during 1909 and 1910 Satischandra was placed on deputation. In June 1909, he went to Ceylon and studied for six months with the venerable High Priest Sumangala, Principal of the Vidyodaya College at Colombo.

The first six months of the year 1910 he spent at Benares where, under the guidance of Dr. A. Venis, then Principal of the Queen’s College, he studied under Subrahmanya Sastri, Bhagavatacharyya, Sibakumar Sastri, Jibanath Jha and Bamachan Nyayacharyya. After his return to Calcutta from Benares he studied for six months under the guidance of Dr. George Thibaut and acquired a good working knowledge of French and German. On the 1st December, 1910, he assumed charge of the Principalship of the Sanskrit College. In 1912 and 1916, he passed with great distinction the Preliminary and Final Examinations in Tibetan held by the Government, and carried off the sanctioned prizes on both occasions. Ho also acted as Lecturer on Pali and Tibetan in the University. His fame as a profound scholar of versatile attainments had rapidly spread and he was eagerly sought after in literary conferences. In 1913, he was the first President of the All India Digambar Jain Conference held at Benares. In 1914, he was President of the All India Svetambar Jain Conference held at Jodhpur and of the All India Sanskrit Conference held at Hardwar. In 1916, he was President of the Bengal Literary Conference held at Jessore, and of the District, Literary Conference at Krishnagar. In 1919, he was a Vice-President of the First Oriental Conference held at Poona and President of the section on Pali and Buddhism. During all this period he worked strenuously as a scholar, and the value of his contributions to Sanskrit, Pali and Tibetan studies cannot be easily appraised by a single individual. In the University itself he was a leading figure, and from 1912, acted as a Member of the Syndicate. His services were invaluable in reorganising Sanskrit studies of the indigenous Type and his work as Secretary to the Sanskrit Board and the Sanskrit Association founded by the Government will be gratefully remembered by Pandits of the present generation all over this Presidency. There can be little doubt that he overworked himself, and in 1919 the first signs of failing health were indicated by mild stroke of paralysis. Friends and well-wishers implored him to spare himself, but he was deaf to their entreaties, for as he used to say, it is better to die than to remain invalid. Two other mild attacks followed and the recovery was slow and gradual. At last on the 25th April, 1920, he passed away as the result of a sudden attack of apoplexy.

The publication of the present volume has a melancholy interest for me. In 1901 I had come across a monograph on “Hindu Logic as preserved in China and Japan” by Sadajiro Sugiura who had offered it as a, dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania. The work seemed to me of fascinating interest as opening up a new field of investigation full of untold possibilities. I suggested to Satischandra who at the time -was engaged in the study of Tibetan that he should undertake to explore the materials available from Tibetan sources. The substance of his first researches in this direction was embodied in his thesis on “Mediaeval School of Indian Logic” which brought him the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy and the Griffith Prize. He was however not content with this preliminary survey and continued steadily to collect, fresh materials. The present volume was the result. At his request I read through more than half of the work before it was finally printed off and this made me realise the true value of what he had accomplished. Professor Taraporewala has with loving care seen through the press all that had not been printed when Satischandra passed away.

A list of many and varied writings (complete as far as it has been possible to make it) has been compiled by several people and is herewith appended.

Portrait of the late MM. Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhusana
Author's Preface
Introduction
Foreword by Sir Asutosh Mukerjee
A List of the writings of the late Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. Satis Chandra Vidyabhushan.

1. The Early Literature of India
2. Problems of the Vedas
3. Development of the conception of soul
4. Atmavidya, the Science of soul
5. Anviksiki, which includes a Theory of Reasons
6. Anviksiki, bifurcates into Philosophy and Logic
7. Anviksiki in its Philosophical Aspect called Darsana
8. Various names for Anviksiki in its Logical Aspect.

9. Carvaka, his Materialistic Doctrine
10. Kapila, his Doctrine of Matter and Soul
11. Dattatreya, his Parable of a Tree
12. Punarvasu Atreya, his Dissertation on the Senses
13. Sulabha, a Lady Ascetic, her Canons of Speech
14. Astavakra, a Violent Debater, how he Defeated a Sophist
15. Astavakra Solves Puzzles
16. Medhatithi Gautama, the Founder of Anviksiki par excellence.

16. A Council of Debate (Parisad)
17. The Technical Terms used in the Council of Debate
18. Tantra Yukti, the Terms of Scientific Argument
19. Medhatithi Gautama's Doctrines as reproduced in the Carakasamhita
    1. Karyabhinirvrtti, the Aggregate of Resources for the Accomplishment of an Action
    2. Pariksa the Standard of Examination
    3. Sambhasa or vada-vidhi. the Method of Debate

20. Anviksiki condemned in certain circles
21. Anviksiki held in high esteem in some quarters

22. Origin of the name Nyaya
23. The Antiquity of Nyayasastra
24. The Early Teachers of Nyayasastra
25. Narada, an Expert in Nyayasastra
26. Nyaya-sutra, the first systematic work on Nyayasastra
27. Aksapada, the Author of the Nyaya-sutra
28. Subjects of the Nyaya-sutra
29. The Arrangement of Categories in the Nyaya-sutra
30. The Process of Treatment of the Categories

31. The Categories: their Enunciation
32. The Categories: their Definition
    1. The means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
    2. The Objects of Right knowledge (prameya)
    3. Doubt (samsaya)
    4. Purpose (prayojana)
    5. Example (drstanta)
    6. Tenet (siddhanta)
    7. Members of a Syllogism (avayava)
    8. Confutation (tarka)
    9. Ascertainment (nirnaya)
    10. Discussion (vada)
    11. Wrangling (jalpa)
    12. Cavil (vitanda)
    13. Fallacy (hetvabhasa)
    14. Quibble (chala)
    15. Analogue (jati)
    16. A Point of Defeat (nigrahasthana)
33. The Varieties of Analogue
    1. Balancing the homogeneity
    2. Balancing the heterogeneity
    3. Balancing an excess
    4. Balancing the deficit
    5. Balancing the questionable
    6. Balancing the unquestionable
    7. Balancing the alternative
    8. Balancing the question
    9. Balancing the co-presence
    10. Balancing the mutual absence
    11. Balancing the infinite regression
    12. Balancing the counter-example
    13. Balancing the non-produced
    14. Balancing the doubt
    15. Balancing the point at issue or the controversial
    16. Balancing the non-reason
    17. Balancing the presumption
    18. Balancing the non-difference
    19. Balancing the demonstration
    20. Balancing the perception
    21. Balancing the non-perception
    22. Balancing the eternal
    23. Balancing the effect
    
    
    Application of the Analogues
    Six-winged Disputation (satpaksi katha)
34. Varieties of the points of the Defeat
    1. Hurting the proposition
    2. Shifting the proposition
    3. Opposing the proposition
    4. Renouncing the proposition
    5. Shifting the reason
    6. Shifting the topic
    7. The meaningless
    8. The unintelligible
    9. The incoherent
    10. The inopportune
    11. Saying too little
    12. Saying too much
    13. Repetition
    14. Silence
    15. Ignorance
    16. Non-ingenuity
    17. Evasion
    18. Admission of an opinion
    19. Overlooking the censurable
    20. Censuring the non-censurable
    21. Deviating from a tenet
    22. The fallacies of reason also furnish points of defeat or occasion for rebuke
35. Categories: their Examination (pariksa)
    1. The Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
       The means
       Perception
       Inference
       Comparison
       Verbal testimony
       Other means
    2. The objects of right knowledge (prameya)
       The Soul
       Body
       Senses
       Objects of Sense
       Intellect
       Mind
       Faults
       Transmigration
       Emancipation
    3. Doubt (samsaya)
    4. Discussion (vada)
    5. Wrangling and Cavil (jalpa-vitanda)
36. Topics Incidentally Examined
    1. Parts and Whole (avayava and avayavin)
    2. Atoms (paramanu)
    3. The Three Times
    4. Words and their Meanings (sabdartha)
    5. The Veda
    6. Sound (sabda)
    7. Word (pada)
    8. The eyes (caksuh)
    9. Intellect (buddhi)
    10. Memory (smrti)
    11. The fixed signification of numbers (samkhyaikanta)

36. Nature of the Commentaries
37. Vatsyayana, author of the Nyaya-bhasya
38. Vatsyayana criticises Nagarjuna
39. Vatsyayana criticises other Doctrines of the Buddhists
40. Vatsyayana's Explanation of certain Doctrines
41. Uddyotakara, Author of the Nyaya-vartika
42. Uddyotakara's Controversy with the Buddhists
43. Uddyotakara criticises Vasubandhu and Nagarjuna
44. Uddyotakara criticises Dignaga
45. Uddyotakara's Explanation of Perception
46. Uddyotakara's Definition of Inference
47. Uddyotakara's Theory of verbal Knowledge
48. Uddyotakara's Theory of Sufferings
49. Vacaspati Misra, Author of the Nyaya-vartika-tatparayatika
50. Vacaspati opposes Dignaga
51. Vacaspati criticises Dharmakirti
52. Vacaspati's Explanation of Determinate and Indeterminate Perceptions, Savikalpaka and nirvikalpaka
53. Vacaspati's Theory of Right Knowledge and Wrong Knowledge (prama and aprama)

53a. Vacaspati's Theory of Condition (upadhi)
53b. The Theory of Cause and Effect (karya-karana)
53c. The Buddhist and Jaina Scriptures condemned

54. Udayanacarya, Author of Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-tika-parisuddhi
55. Udayana combats the Buddhists
56. Udana opposes Kalvana Raksita and Dharmottara
57. Udayana's Kusumanjali
58. Udayana's Atma-tattva-viveka
59. Jayanta, Author of the Nyaya-manjari
60. Jayanta's Explanation of Verbal Knowledge
61. Jayanta criticises the Doctrines of Kalyana Raksita and Dharmottara
62. Jayanta's Review of several other Buddhistic Doctrines
63. Srikantha
64. Abhayatilaka Upadhyaya
65. Other commentators on the Nyaya-sutra

66. A comparative Estimate of the Anviksiki and the Nyaya
67. The Nyaya included in Saddarsana
68. The Nyaya supports the Veda
69. The Nyaya adapts itself to Saivism
70. The Popularity of Nyaya established

1. The special Features of Mediaevel Logic.
   Formation of the Mediaevel school.
2. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism
3. The Jaina sects, Svetambara and Digambara
4. Indrabhuti Gautama, a Disciple of Mahavira
5. The canonical Scriptures of the Jainas
6. Logical Subjects in the Canons

Bhadrabahu the Senior
Bhadrabahu the Junior

7. Bhadrabahu's Syllogism
8. Bhadrabahu's Explanation of Syadvadu
9. Umasvati
10. Umasvati's Doctrine of Pramana (Right Knowledge)
11. Umasvati's Explanation of Naya (the Mood of Statements)

12. The written Records of the Jainas
13. Systematic jaina Logic
14. Siddhasena Divakara alias Ksapanaka
15. Siddhasena's Nyayavatara
    Pramana, Right Knowledge
    Naya, the Method of Descriptions
16. Jinabhadra Gani Ksamasramana
17. Siddhasena Gani
18. Samatabhadra
19. Samatabhadra's Aptamimamsa
20. Akalankadeva
21. Vidyananda
22. Manikya Nandi
23. Manikya Nandi's Pariksamukha-sutra
    Valid Knowledge, pramana
    Syllogism, vyapti
    Reason, hetu
    Example, drstanta
    Inference, anumana
    Verbal Testimony, agama
    Scope of valid Knowledge, visaya
    Fallacy, abhasa
    References to Philosophers
24. Prabhacandra
25. Rabhasananda
26. Mallavadin
27. Amrtacandra Suri
28. Devasena Bhattaraka
29. Pradyumna Suri
30. Abhayadeva Suri
31. Laghusamantabhadra
32. Kalyanacandra
33. Anantavirya
34. Deva Suri
35. Deva Suri's Pramana-naya-tattvalokalankara
    Fallacies of Naya
    The Soul, atma
    The Method of Debate
36. Hemacandra Suri
37. Candraprabha Suri
38. Nemicandra Kavi
39. Ananda Suri and Amaracandra Suri, nicknamed Tiger-cub and Lion-cub
40. Haribhadra Suri
41. Parsvadeva Gani
42. Sricandra
43. Devabhadra
44. Candrasena Suri
45. Ratnaprabha Suri
46. Tilakacarya
47. Mallisena Suri
48. Rajasekhara Suri
49. Jnanacandra
50. Gunaratna
51. Srutasagara Gani
52. Dharma Bhusana

52a. Vinayavijaya

53. Yasovijaya Gani
54. Yasovijaya's Works

55. The conciliatory Character of Jaina Logic
56. Royal Paronage and Persecution
57. Support of the Jaina Community

59. Buddha Gautama
60. Origin of the Pali Buddhist Literature
61. Logical Topics in the pali Literature
62. Suttapitaka: Digha-nikaya: Brahmajala Sutta
63. Suttapitaka: Majjhemanikaya Anumana Sutta
64. Suttapitaka: Khuddaka Nikaya Udana
65. Vinaya-pitaka: Parivara
    Four kinds of Cases for Settlement (adhikarna)
    Seven Rules for the Settlement of Cases (adhikarana-sama-tha-dhamma)
    A Complaint (codana)
    A Complaint in Complainant and Respondent
    A Judicial Council of Monks (sangha)
    Members of a Council (samgamavacarabhikkhu)
    The Judge or Umpire (anuvijjaka)
66. Vinaya Pitaka: Patimikkha
67. Abhidhamma-pitaka: kathavatthuppakarana
68. Methods of Disputation as illustrated in the Kathavatthu
    A Case presented by a Dispute in a regular Form (anuloma)
    A Rejoinder by the Respondent (patikamma)
    The Rejoinder causing Entanglement or Defeat on the Disputant (niggaha)
    Application of the Reasoning of the Disputant to his own Case (upanaya)
    Conclusion (niggamana)
    A Case presented through a simple Comparison (suddhikasamsandana)
    Definition of Terms (lakkhanayatti katha)
    Clearing the Meaning of Terms (vacanasodhana)
    A Case presented through an Analog (opamma Samsandana)
    A Case presented through the four-fold Method (catukkhanayasamsandana)
    The Doctrine of Impermanence (khaneka katha)
69. Milinda-panha alias the Bhiksu-Sutra
70. Origin of the Mahayana
71. Origin of the Sanskrit Buddhist Literature
72. Logic mentioned in the Sanskrit Literature
73. The Lalitavistara
74. The Lankavatara-sutra
75. Eighteen Sects of the Buddhists
76. Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy

77. Rise of Buddhist Logic
78. Arya Nagarjuna
79. Nagarjuna's Madhyamiksa-karika
80. Nagarjuna's References to the Logical Doctrines of Aksapada
81. Nagarjuna's Vigrahu-vyavartani-karika
82. Nagarjuna's Pramanu-vihetana or Pramana vidhvamsana
83. Unaya-kausalya-hrdaya-sastra
84. Arya Deva
85. Maitreya
86. Maitreya's Abhisamayalankara-karika
87. Maitreya's Treatise on the Art of Debate
    1. The Subject of Debate
    2. The Place of Debate
    3. The Means of Debate
    4. The Qualifications of a Debater
    5. Points of Defeat (nigrahasthana)
    6. Attending a Place of Debate
    7. Confidence of a Debater
88. Arya Asanga
89. Vasubandhu
90. Vasubandhu's Tarka-sastra

91. The Commencement of Mediaeval Logic
92. Acarya Dignaga, the Father of Mediaeval Logic
93. Life of Dignaga
94. Dignaga's Pramana-samuccaya
    Chapter I - Perception
    Chapter II - Inference for One's Self.
    Chapter III - Inference for the Sake of Others
    Chapter IV - Reason and Example
    Chapter V - Apoha, Negation of the Opposite
    Chapter VI - Analogues or Far-fetched Analogy
95. Dignaga's Nyaya-pravesa
    A Syllogism, nyayavayava
    The Minor Term
    The Middle Term and the Major Term
    Fourteen Fallacies
    The example
    Perception and Inference
96. Dignaga's Hetu-cakrahamaru
97. Pramana-samuccaya-vrti
98. Pramana-sastra-nyaya-pravesa
99. Alambana-pariksa
100. Alambana-pariksa-vrtti
101. Trikala-pariksa
102. Paramartha
103. Sankara Svamin
104. Dharmapala
105. Acarya Silabhadra
106. Acarya Dharmakirti
107. Pramana-vartika-karika
108. Pramana-vartika-vrtti
109. Pramana-viniscaya
110. Nyaya-bindu
     Perception
     Inference for One's Self
     Inference for the Sake of Others
     Dharmakirti criticises Dignaga
111. Hetu-bindu-vivarana
112. Tarka-nyaya or Vada-nyaya
113. Santanantara-siddhi
114. Sambandha-pariksa
115. Sambandha-pariksa-vrtti
116. Devendrabodhi
117. Sakyabodhi
118. Vinita Deva
119. Ravi Gupta
120. Jinendrabodhi
121. Santa Raksita
122. Kamalasila
123. Kalyana Raksita
124. Dharmottaracarya
125. Muttakumbha
126. Arcata
127. Asoka
128. Candragomon (Junior)
129. Prajnakara Gupta
130. Acarya Jetari
131. Jina
132. Ratna Kirti
133. Ratna Vajra
134. Jina Mitra
135. Danasila
136. Jnanasri Mitra
137. Jnanasri Bhadra
138. Ratnakara Santi
139. Yamari
140. Sankarananda
141. Subhakara Gupta
142. Moksakara Gupta
143. Contentious Spirit of Buddhist Logic
144. Loss of Royal Patronage
145. Advent of the Mahomedans
146. The Brahmanic Preachers
147. Shelter in Foreign Countries
148. Extinction of the Buddhists and their Doctrines in India.

1. The Neo-Brahmanic age
2. Composition of the Prakaranas, Manual of Logic
3. Four Classes of Prakaranas
4. Nyaya-parakarana developing the category of pramana
5. Bhasarvajna
6. Bhasarvajna's Nyaya-sara
   Nyaya-sara follows no particular Work
7. Contents of the Nyaya-sara
   Perception, pratyaksa
   Inference, anumana
   Hetvabhasa, Fallacy of Reason
   1. Unproved (asiddha)
   2. The Contradictory (viruddha)
   3. The Uncertain (anaikantika)
   4. Non-tried or Non-conclusive (anadhyavasita or anupasamhari)
   5. Mistimed or Incompatible Reason (kalatyayopadista or badhita)
   6. Balancing the Controversy (prakarana-sama)
   7. Non-erroneous Contradiction (viruddhavyabhicari)
   Example, udaharana
   Verbal Testimony, agama
   Emancipation, moksa
8. Commentaries on the Nyaya-sara

9. The Nyaya incorporates the Vaisesika
10. Varadaraja
11. Tarkikaraksa
    Valid knowledge, pramana
    Inference, anumana
    Syllogism, avayana
    The Sign, linga
    Debate, katha
12. Commentaries on Tarkikaraksa
13. Kesava Misra
14. Tarka-bhasa. Technically of Logic
    Categories, padartha
    Instrument, karana
    Cause, karana
    Perception, pratyaksa
    Inference, anumana
    Comparison, upamana
    Word, sabda
15. Commentaries on the Tarka-bhasa

16. The Vaisesika incorporates the Nyaya category
17. Vallabhacarya
18. Nyaya-lilavati
19. Commentaries on the Nyaya-lilvati
20. Annam Bhatta
21. Tarkasamgraha
22. Commentaries on Tarkasamgraha
23. Visvanatha Nyayapancanana
24. Bhasa-pariccheda
25. Tarkamrta
26. Laugaksi Bhaskara
27. Tarka-kaumudi

28. The Nyaya and Vaisesika promiscuously amalgamated
29. Sasadhara
30. Nyaya-siddhanta-dipa
31. Madhavacarya
32. Sarvadarsana-samgraha, Aksapada Darsana
    Inference as a Means of Right knowledge
    The inference as a Means of Right Knowledge cannot be denied

33. The Nyaya cannot be combined with Vaisesika
34. Adoptation of Pramana alone
35. Adoptation of the Vaisesika Principles
36. Subtlety of Meanings aimed at
37. Fine Definition of Terms
38. The Use of TechnicalTerms

39. Importance of Tattva-cintamani
40. Gangesa, the Author of the Tattva-cintamani
41. The Text of Tattva-cintamani
    Book I: Perception, prtayaksa khanda
    Invocation of Blessings, mangala-vada
    The validity of Knowledge, Pramanya-vada
    Invalid Knowledge, Anyatha-khyati
    Intercourse between Senses and their Objects - Sannikarsa Ordinary Perception
    (laukika pratyaksa)
    Transcendent Preception (alaukika pratyaksa)
    Inference Samanaya-vada
    The Invalidity of Non-perception. Anupalabdhi or pramanya vada
    Non-existence (or Negation), Abhava-vada
    Causes of Perception, Pratyaksa-karana-vada
    The Atomic Nature of the Mind, Manonutva-vada
    The Doctrine or Self-consciousness, Anuvyavasaya-vada
    Immediate Perception, Nirvikalpa-vada
    Mediate Perception, Savikalpa-vada
    Book II: Inference, Anumana-khanda
    The Determination of Inferential Knowledge - Anumiti-niru-pana.
    Inference distinct from Perception
    Five Provisional Definitions of Invariable Concomitance, Vyapti-pancakam
    Definition of Invariable Concomitance given by "Lion" and "Tiger", Simha-vyaghrokta- vyaptilaksana
    Non-existence whose Counterpart is qualified by a Nature abiding in a different Locus, Vyadhikarana-dharma-vacchinnabhavah
    Other objectionable Definitions of Invariable concomitance, Purvapaksah
    The conclusive Definition of Invariable Concomitances, Siddhanta-laksanam
    Non-existence of the General Form, Samanya bhavah
    Invariable Concomitance of Special Forms, Visesa-vyapti
    The Means of apprehending Invariable Concomitance, Vyapti-grahopayah
    Conclusion as to the Means of appending Invariable Concomitance. Vyapti-grahopaya- siddhanta
    Reasoning (or Confutation), Tarka
    Comprehensiveness of Invariable Concomitance, Vyapty-anugamah
    Intercourse whose Character is General, Samanya-laksana
    Conclusion about the Intercourse whose Character is General. Samanya-laksana-siddhantah
    The Conditional Middle Term, Upadhi-vadah
    The State of Being the Locus or Minor Term, Paksata
    Considetation or knowledge of Premises, paramarsah
    An Exclusive Affirmative Inference, Kevalanvayyanumanam
    An Exclusive Negative Inference, Kevalavyatirekyanumanam
    An Affirmative - negative Inference
    Presumption, Arthapatti
    Inference for One's self, Svarthanumana
    Inference for the Sake of Others, Pararthanumana
    Syllogism, Nyayak
    Parts of a Syllogism, Avayavak
    Fallacies, Hetvabhasak
    Fallacies are serviceable as they point out Inefficiency
    Inference of God, Isvaranumanam
    Book III: Comparison, Upamana-khanda
    Book IV: Verbal Testimony, Sabda-khanda
    Definition of Verbal Testimony
    Verbal Knowledge, Sabda-bodhah
    Speech as a Means of Valid-knowledge
    Expectancy, Akanksa-vadah
    Consistency, Yogyata
    Contiguity, Asattih
    Intention, Tatparayam
    The Non-eternity of Sound
    Injuction, Vidhi-vadak
    Merit and Demerit, Apurva-vadah
    Potentiality, Sakti-vadak
    Implication, Laksana
    Compound Words, Samasa-vadah
    Verbal Suffixes, Akhyata-vadak
    The Roots, Dhatu-vadah
    Prefixes, Upasarga-vadah
    Validity of the Four Means of Knowledge

42. The Popularity of Tattva-cintamani
43. The Mithila School
44. Vardhamana Upadhyaya
45. Paksadhara Misra
46. Vasudeva Misra
47. Rucidatta Misra
48. Bhagiratha or Megha Thakkura
49. Mahesa Thakaura
50. Sankara Misra
51. Vacaspati Misra (the Younger or Junior)
52. Misaru Misra
53. Durgadatta Misra
54. Devanatha Thakkura
55. Madhusudana Thakkura
56. The Nadia School
57. Vasudeva Sarvabhauma
58. Raghunatha Siromani
59. Haridasa Nyayalankara Bhattacarya
60. Janakinatha Sarma
61. Kanada Tarkavagisa
62. Ramakrsna Bhattacarya Chakravarti
63. Mathuranatha Tarkavagisa
64. Krsnadasa Sravabhauma Bhattacarya
65. Gunananda Vidyavagisa
66. Ramabhadra Sarvabhauma
67. Jagadisa Tarkalankara
68. Sabda-sakti-prakasika
69. Rudra Nyayavacaspati
70. Jayarama Nyayapancanana
71. Gaurikanta Sarvabhauma
72. Bhavananda Siddhantavagisa
73. Harirama Tarkavagisa
74. Visvanatha Siddhantapancanana
75. Ramabhadra Siddhantapancanana
76. Govinda Nyayavagisa
77. Raghudeva Nyayalankara
78. Gadadhara Bhattacharya
79. Nrsinha Pancanana
80. Ramadeva Ciranjiva
81. Ramarudra Tarkavagisa
82. Srikrsna Nyayalankara
83. Jayarama Tarkalankara
84. Rudrarama
85. "Buno" Ramanatha
86. Krsnakanta Vidyavagisa
87. Rajacudamanimakhin
88. Dharmarajadhvarin
89. Gopinatha Mauni
90. Krsna Bhatta Ade
91. Mahadeva Puntamkar
92. Raghunatha Sastri (Parvata)

93. Patronage of the Maharaja of Nadia
94. The Portuguese to be an Interest in Dialectics
95. British Government encourages Nyaya
96. Rise of Vernacular detrimental to Nyaya
97. The Universities on the Western Model

Appendix A: The University of Taxila
Appendix B: Influence of Aristotle on the Development of the Syllogism in Indian Logic.
Appendix C: The University of Nalanda
Appendix D: A List of Kings of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Behar
Appendix E: The Royal University of Vikramasila
Appendix F: University of Mithila
Appendix G: The University of Nadia
Appendix H: The Tashi Lama's Visit to India
Appendix I: Reminiscences of a Visit to Labrang, Pamiyangchi and Padangi
Appendix J: Reminiscences of a Visit to Pamiyangchi
Appendix K: Journey to Ceylon

Index of Subjects
Index of Books
Index of Authors
Index of Quotations
Index of Sanskrit Terms

1. Logical Terms
2. Tibetan Quotations
3. Books
4. Proper Names
5. Place Names
6. Residuals
7. Errata